Fig. 3

Biomarkers present or in development for neurodegenerative disorders. CSF and blood are the most common sources for samples collected for biomarker studies in neurodegenerative diseases. Samples collected from CSF and blood can be used for detecting misfolded protein by real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) (image [187]). Expression of genes dysregulated in neurodegenerative diseases can be assessed by different techniques such as microarrays, real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) (Transcriptomics). Levels of proteins dysregulated in neurodegenerative diseases can be assessed by different techniques such as proteomic analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (image [188]), and multiplex assay (image [189]) (Proteomics). Data from “omics” studies are processed by different bioinformatics tools generating heatmaps of altered signaling pathways, genes, and/or proteins as well as protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks (image [183]) (Bioinformatics). The figure was created with BioRender.com. Images taken from publications or web pages were referenced in the figure caption