Organoid type | Brain region | Methodology | Culture conditions | Observed phenotypes | Main reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
EB-like aggregates | Cerebral cortex | Guided | Stationary floating culture, followed by re-plating of aggregates | The cortical tissues contained ventricular, early and late cortical-plate, and Cajal-Retzius cell zones along the apico-basal direction | [18] |
Cerebral organoid | Whole brain | Unguided | Matrigel and spinning bioreactor | Apical-basal polarity, interkinetic nuclear migration, division modes of neural stem cells, and the pattern of neuronal migration were well maintained, and the enlarged OSVZ was exhibited | [11] |
Matrigel and spinning bioreactor | The molecular map of the diversity of cell types across organoids is provided by sc-RNA sequencing, and they showed organoids undergo substantial neuronal maturation | [12] | |||
Intracerebral grafting of brain organoids into mouse brain | The organoids showed progressive neuronal differentiation and maturation, gliogenesis, and established the graft-to-host functional synaptic connectivity | [27] | |||
Region-specific brain organoid | Cerebellum | Guided | Stationary floating culture | The induced cells self-organized into neural-tube-like structures with dorso-ventral and apico-basal polarities, and eventually formed layered structures that recapitulate cerebellar ontogenesis | [30] |
Forebrain | Matrigel and miniaturized multi-well spinning bioreactor | Forebrain organoids exhibited multi-layer progenitor zone organization and generated diverse neuronal subtypes of all six cortical layers | |||
Midbrain | Matrigel and miniaturized multi-well spinning bioreactor | Midbrain organoids showed organized neuroepithelium-like structures expressing NESTIN and floor-plate precursor marker FOXA2 at early stage, TH+ DA neurons, NURR1+ and PITX3+ cells appeared at late stage | |||
Hypothalamus | Matrigel and miniaturized multi-well spinning bioreactor | Hypothalamus organoids expressed NKX2.1, SOX2, NESTIN and FOXA2 at early stage, and then the peptidergic neuronal markers and homeobox protein OTP appeared at late stage | |||
Hippocampus | Floating culture permeable film-based culture plates, mechanical cutting | The organoids produced Zbtb20+/Prox1+ granule neurons and Zbtb20+/KA1+ pyramidal neurons, and both of which were electrically functional with network formation | [31] | ||
Choroid plexus | Floating culture in 40% oxygen | The organoids produced Lmx1a+, Otx2+ and TTR+ neurons, which are neuronal markers for choroid plexus | |||
MGE organoid | Orbital shaker | The organoids specifically enriched the NKX2-1+ and DLX2+ neurons like in MGE | [33] | ||
Thalamus | Orbital shaker | The organoids specifically enriched the OTX2+, GBX2+ and DBX1+ neurons like in thalamus | [34] | ||
Hindbrain/spinal cord | Stationary floating culture | The neurons in hindbrain/spinal cord have established synaptical connection with neurons in cortical organoids | [40] | ||
Fused organoids: “assembloids” | Dorsal and ventral forebrain | Guided | Stationary floating culture | The assembloids have recapitulated the interactions between glutamatergic neurons and GABAergic interneurons resembling the dorsal and ventral forebrains in human brain | [37] |
Dorsal and ventral forebrain | Orbital shaker | The assembloids have recapitulated the interactions between glutamatergic neurons and GABAergic interneurons resembling the dorsal and ventral forebrains in human brain | [38] | ||
Thalamus and forebrain | Orbital shaker | The axons from both cortex and thalamus reach the other side within 6 days in assembloids | [34] | ||
Cortical-mouse spinal cord | Air–liquid interface cerebral organoid method | Synapses could be detected between ALI-CO projecting axons and spinal cord neurons; axon tracts could guide mouse muscle contraction when innervated | [39] | ||
Cortico-striatal assembloids | Stationary floating culture | The cortical neurons send axonal projections into striatal organoids and form synaptic connections in assembloids | [35] | ||
Cortico-motor assembloids | Stationary floating culture | The corticofugal neurons could project and connect with spinal spheroids, while spinal-derived motor neurons further connect with muscle to control its contraction | [40] |