Fig. 2

Dual role of ROS in autophagy induction and inhibition. ROS trigger the activation of transcription factors, such as p53, HIF1A and NRF2, to induce the expression of autophagy-related genes. ROS spatiotemporally oxidize and inactivate ATG4 to maintain lipidated LC3-II and autophagosome formation. ROS also block PI3K-AKT-MTORC1 signaling to initiate autophagy signaling. In contrast, ROS oxidize ATG proteins and PTEN to suppress autophagy