Fig. 1

Morphological changes of programmed cell death [2, 29]. Cells initiate different pathways of cell death upon overstimulation. The morphological changes of apoptosis include chromatin condensation, cell membrane fragmentation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies. The morphological characteristics of necroptosis are mainly characterized by swelling and rounding of the cells, swelling of the cytoplasm, enlargement of organelles, and disruption of the cell membrane. Whereas the morphological changes of pyroptosis are manifested by the formation of small pores on the cell membrane and the release of inflammatory cytokines