Fig. 3

Glycolysis and the regulatory mechanism of PFKFB3

As mentioned earlier, glucose is converted into pyruvate through a series of crucial enzymatic reactions, and under hypoxic conditions, it is converted into lactate through enzymatic reactions. PFKFB3, an enzyme that plays a key role in glycolysis, is significantly affected by a wide range of factors, including inflammatory factors, miRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, growth factors and transcription factors. By modulating PFKFB3 activity through different mechanisms and pathways, these factors ultimately control glycolytic flux. Blue-boxed factors directly promote the expression of PFKFB3, while red-boxed factors directly inhibit its expression. The green-boxed factors are those directly or indirectly involved in the regulation of PFKFB3. This figure was created using Biorender (https://www.biorender.com/). GLUT: glucose transporter; HK2: hexokinase 2; G6PD: glucose6‑phosphate dehydrogenase; PFKFB3: phosphofructokinase‑2/fructose‑2,6‑bisphosphatase‑3; PFK1: phosphofructokinase‑1; PKM2: pyruvate kinase‑2; FGF: fibroblast growth factor; YAP: Yes‑associated protein; FOXO1: Forkhead Box O1; 3PO, 3‑(3‑pyridinyl)‑1‑(4‑pyridinyl)-2‑propen‑1‑one; KLF2, Krüppel‑like factor 2; LSS, laminar shear stress; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; IL-8: interleukin-8; IL-1β: interleukin-β; PKC: protein kinase C; HIF-1α: hypoxia-inducible factor; PKA: protein kinase A; AMPK: adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; miR: microRNA; SIRT1: silencing information regulator 1; lncRNA: long noncoding RNA; NO: nitric oxide