Fig. 4

Microglia, astrocytes, and nerve terminals are involved in pathways associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Activation of P2 × 7R causes an increase in Ca²⁺ concentration in microglia, which activates NLRP3 and leads to the release of IL-1β. P2 × 7R is expressed on microglia and also expressed at a low density on astrocytes, mediating the release of ATP. Glu released from the nerve terminal and astrocytes causes cell death via excitotoxicity. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) released by astrocytes cause cell death directly or indirectly through oxidative stress. Microglia and astrocytes both release IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and these cytokines cause cell death through neuroinflammation. These above-mentioned processes are ultimately involved in the development and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Figure 4 has been modified based on Sperlagh B et al. [32]